The media joined internet users in calling for a re-evaluation of China's modernization process, which has seen rapid urbanization and dramatic economic development at the expense of the environment.

Dense smog shrouded large swathes of northern China at the weekend, cutting visibility to 100 metres in some areas and forcing flight cancellations.

Reports said dozens of building sites and a car factory in the capital halted work as an anti-pollution measure. Doctors at two of the city's major hospitals said the number of patients with respiratory problems had increased sharply in the past few days, state media said.

"Now it has been dark with pollution for three days, at least people are starting to realize how important the environment is," said one posting on China's Twitter-like Sina Weibo. At the height of the smog Beijing authorities said readings for PM2.5 — particles small enough deeply to penetrate the lungs — hit 993 micrograms per cubic metre, almost 40 times the WHO's safe limit.

Experts quoted by state media blamed low winds, saying fog had mixed with pollutants from vehicles and factories and had been trapped by mountains north and west of Beijing. Coal burning in winter was also a factor, they added. In an editorial on Monday the state-run Global Times called for more transparent figures on pollution and urged the government to change its "previous method of covering up the problems and instead publish the facts".